To provide standard operating information for the following operation(s) in Huntington Beach and automatic/mutual aid regions. This bulletin shall comply with all safety practices and procedures according to department and county policy.

INTRODUCTION

A Los Angeles Truck Engineer gathered this information. This was a three-month project, consisting of critiques and information from statistics across the nation. The area this Engineer worked-in (among other structures) was made-up of various center hallway apartments. Remember that we will continue to respond on mutual aid assignments across region #1. This information is not considered Policy only helpful, applicable information.

Center hallway type structures, hotels, apartment houses, and condominiums are characterized by a hallway in the middle of the building with units on either side. The enclosed hallway accesses these units.

Although many buildings with enclosed center hallways are equipped with fire doors designed to limit extension, occupants often block these doors open to improve visibility, ventilation or access. Obviously, fire doors that are not being used correctly will enhance the extension of the products of combustion.

The many wings associated with this building style may make the building look like an "E", "H", "U", or "O" when viewed from above. The many wings give every line of apartments an opening to the outside via a shaft for light, air, and a secondary means of egress, usually a fire escape. The numerous wings can be a logistical nightmare as operating forces try to identify which stairway or fire escape gives access to the fire apartment. Sometimes stairs serve only one part of the building; in other buildings, one stairway gives access to an entire floor, due to a transverse hallway.

If faced with a habitational occupancy over a commercial occupancy with the fire located on one of the upper floors it is very common to find the entrance way to the apartments above off to one side of the building, in the front. In some unusual cases, the entrance, if a store occupies the first floor, is in the rear or a side alley. Try to utilize people that are familiar with the building. The civilians can often be used to give you an idea of the best way to make access to the fire floor.

In Central Net we respond to various locations in other cities. Costa Mesa and Newport both have "old" style fire escapes. The fire escape is a secondary exit attached to the exterior wall of a building that is two or more stories in height and which provides emergency egress from the building. Fire escapes may include, but are not limited to, stairs, railings, landings, and ladders.

One of the more popular building materials used in various types of buildings, old and new, is the common brick. It is safe to assume that the masonry portion of brick buildings constructed before the 1930’s are "an accident waiting to happen," while the masonry portion of brick buildings built before and after the 1930’s are diametrically opposed and are constructed as follows:

• Motor consisting of sand and lime only, no cement.
• Lack of steel reinforcing rods (rebar.)
• Brick exterior walls about 13" thick.
• Parapet walls around the perimeter of a roof. Parapet walls can be three feet above the roof line, and five or more feet if used as a facade on the front of a building.
• Floor and roof joists that are "let" (penetrated or resting in a cavity) into the inside of the exterior walls.
• Straight roof sheathing.
• Roof and floor joists that are "fire cut" (ends were cut with an angle) so they would pull loose from the exterior walls during a fire and collapse into the interior of the structure.

Engine companies extinguish fires, but truck companies determine how the fires will be extinguished. For this reason, spotting the truck company at fires should be a primary concern. A rule of thumb is "the address belongs to the truck." Basically, "hose bends - you can't stretch your aerial ladder."

The placement of initial companies will begin to form the plan for fire suppression companies. The proper placement of apparatus will provide the opportunity for the companies to use their capabilities in the most effective manner. Normally, if the placement of initial companies (usually engine companies) is correct, placement of other apparatus (truck companies) will also be correct.

• If the placement of the "first-alarm-assignment" at an incident is incorrect, it is impossible to call a "time-out," regroup, and start over.

Responding companies (particularly the first two companies) should not approach an incident from the same direction if possible, for the following reasons:

• Companies responding from opposite (or different) directions (collectively) will see more sides of the building.
• Companies responding from the opposite directions can quickly develop primary and alternate water sources.
• Companies responding from the opposite directions will not have to drive over or be blocked by supply line(s) laid in the street.
• Companies responding from opposite directions can easily park in line, leaving more of the street open for other apparatus.

If a working fire is in progress, the assignment of specific tasks by the incident commander will dictate apparatus placement. If a specific task has not been delegated, responding companies should ask the incident commander for an assignment prior to arriving on scene. Try to get an assignment early… It may change your response route.

• If a staging area has been made and you arrive with no assignment, you should ask the I.C. to become the staging manager.
• Once a staging manager has been assigned, units should keep radio traffic to a minimum ie. "HE41 staging."

If an aerial ladder will not be necessary over the course of the fire, i.e. Small residential, it is not necessary to spot the truck company directly in front of the structure. Spot the apparatus close to, but away from the front of the building. Leave the front spots open for engines.

If the aerial ladder is to be used, spot the truck at a corner. Corners of the structure offer some advantages:

• The aerial device can reach two sides of the building (remember to maximize your fireground flexibility.)
• The corners of the building are the strong portions of a building and normally, are out of the collapse zone.
• Placing an aerial ladder to a corner normally will not place the ladder over horizontal openings such as windows. From this position, it can offer a safe exit from the roof without being exposed to fire blowing out windows.
• By driving past a building and spotting to the far corner, company personnel will have seen three sides of the building and leave the front of the building open for other companies.

While spotting your truck company, make sure that an engine does not block the ladder bay. Either kick out the back end of the truck or tell the truck engineer to pull forward. If either one of these alternatives affect the truck companies aerial operation, let the truck engineer know immediately. Be guided by his instructions!

Spotting the truck company in close proximity to an incident not only makes it easier to access tools, but enhances security of the apparatus.

If you are second-in on a center hall… throw your aerial! Its use is too often neglected. If you come in late to a fire and you don't have a spot to the roof, consider throwing your aerial to fire escape balconies for equipment.

When defensive operations are called for, the building becomes a prime candidate for collapse. Common collapse zones are the sides and ends of a building. Walls can collapse at least the height of the wall. Therefore, defensive operations should place additional emphasis on safety of personnel and apparatus by placing apparatus in non-collapse zones and out of the smoke.

Just like any other fire, the placement of each one of your ladders should be done so with a reason in mind. Center hallway fires require quick thinking and good judgment. You have to prioritize which ladders are thrown first and for what purpose they serve.

If you see lines going into windows, ladder them. If you see panicked people hanging out of windows try to instruct them to stay put. Remember your imminent rescue procedures!

At the Ponet Square Hotel fire every time they placed a ladder, people came down and the ladder had to be moved for someone else. In almost every case, those rescued via ladders had to be helped onto or carried down the ladder. Some rescues were complicated by shouts of "forget him, take me." The following is to give you an idea of how desperate these people were to get out of the building:

• A 16-year-old female jumped to her death from the fourth floor.
• Some people came down ropes contrived from sheets and blankets. One of these men tied his rope to his television. He landed in the lot and his television was on him.
• One man jumped from the fourth-floor, holding his mattress, into the parking lot.
• Five jumped from the fourth-floor to the first-floor roof (one hit the edge of the building and went to the ground.)
• Five jumped from the third-floor to the first-floor roof, three slid bedding or rope, one came down the fire escape, and one jumped for the first-floor roof and missed.
• One person came down the fire escape and jumped to the ground.

When responding to other cities that have "old style" fire escape balconies, consider dropping the fire escape ladder. Hopefully, civilians will use the fire escape ladder and not "our ladders." In any case, use extreme caution when dropping fire escape ladders. A good practice would be to have the member that footed the ladder stay at the base of the ladder ensuring the sidewalk area is clear, while the other member climbs it and prepares to drop the ladder. This will prevent the ladder from hitting anyone on the sidewalk or hitting a hose line. Remember that these ladders can kill you!

One of the most challenging situations an engine company may encounter is putting a hose line into operation in a center hallway fire. Typically, the layout of the building/location of the fire is going to dictate "how" the lines are going to be put into operation. Information gathered from your companies size-up, your own personal size-up, and quite possibly additional information gathered from the truck company on the roof, are factors that may influence your initial operations.

As a general rule, drop bags tend to be the quickest and most practical method of getting firefighting lines on the fire floor. This is not to rule out the use of aerial ladders, ground ladders, or even manually extending a line up a stairwell to the fire floor.

Standpipes are becoming more and more unreliable with age. Use your judgment. They are commonly found blocked, have "blown apart," etc. If you charge the standpipe consider sending a member to the upper floors to ensure that all the gates are closed.

As you arrive on scene, make a size-up. Pay particular attention to the size and shape of the building; the depth of the building; what is showing and where; and fire escape type and locations. If smoke or fire is showing from one window but the hallway is clear, it is likely that one unit is involved and the doorway is closed to the unit. If, however, smoke is issuing from the hallway, there is at least partial hallway involvement.

It is pretty common for center hallway occupancies to be completely different from front to back. For example, a building may be four stories in the front and two stories in the rear.

If the fire is well involved and the sprinklers are working, it might be a good idea to ask yourself why? The system may be only partially opened or there is a good chance accelerants were used. Consider the possibility of the floors being burned out. Use caution!

If for some reason you have difficulty gaining access into the structure due to a forcible entry problem, don't waist time. While the door is being worked on, throw a ladder to the floor above or as close to the fire floor as possible to "get you in."

Once you are "in," upon entering the lobby take a quick look at the mail boxes. Coupled with the exterior size-up (number of stories,) should tell you the number of apartments per floor and possibly give clues as to how the apartments are identified. Apartment 3E could be the #3 apartment on the "E" wing. Determining the system used for apartment identification is important when sending companies to remote areas to check for fire extension, possible trapped occupants or when stretching additional lines.

Look for the easiest route to the fire floor and then throw your bag. When you throw your drop bag, literally throw it! You want to throw it hard enough that the engineer will hear it hit the ground. In addition, try to get your bag as close to the engineer as possible without hitting him. If possible, watch the engineer tie off the line. Especially if it is an engineer whom you are not familiar with. Have your knife ready. If you have any trouble untying your line or if you encounter a knot, don't hesitate to cut the line. It is critical that members coordinate with each other the pulling/flaking out of the hose. Hose has a tendency to hang-up on the couplings when pulling it over fire escape balconies and railings. Once you have pulled your line to the fire floor, disconnect the drop bag line immediately to avoid getting it tangled. When the hose line is in place, tie it off. When tying off a line, consider tying it off below a coupling to prevent the hose line from "creeping back" off of the balcony when the nozzle is opened and closed.

Fire escape balconies are a good place to work from (if deemed safe) depending on the conditions of the hallway and the location of the fire. Don't overload them. Consider entering an uninvolved unit in close proximity to the fire. Clear out the window and frame, and throw your bag. If multiple lines are noted entering the window of a fire escape balcony, a good idea would be to enter the unit adjacent to the fire escape, close the door, clear out the window and frame, and then throw your drop bag. This does several things. One, it gives you a safe haven to comfortably flake out your line and suit-up prior to entering the hallway. Two, it is easy for the engineer or anyone else to identify if it is the only hose line entering the unit.

If possible, it is helpful to advance your "Van Dyke" or bundled hose line as far as you can prior to charging. If you do this make sure that your line doesn't slide underneath doors, etc. This will immediately pinch off your line, putting it out of commission.

Don't open hallway doors until you are ready to advance your line down the hallway. Once you are ready, make sure you block the door open.

If possible, stay on your feet when advancing your line. You get more feeling out of your feet than you do your knees. Don't crawl. It slows down your operation.

One of the most frequent problems encountered by engine companies at center hallway fires is the fact that initial companies lay short on attack 13/4" hand lines. If members are capable of taking a bundle of hose with them as they ascend to the fire floor it will help to minimize the chances of laying short.

Ideally, a minimum of two hose lines should be placed into operation. One line is used to hold the fire (extension) in the hallway or in an adjacent unit on the opposite side of the hallway, while the other is used to knock down fire in one of the involved units. Once the unit is knocked down, the line can then be moved to hold the hallway while the other line is moved-in to knock down the additional unit. Basically, you are utilizing one line as a protection line and one line as an advanced attack firefighting line. A 21/2" line is usually not the line of choice for protection because it is difficult to move.

At a post-fire critique in a center hall, members considered drop bagging a line down from the roof via the light well to members in close proximity to the fire unit. It is common to find rubbish fires at the base of light wells. Access to deliver the hand line can be made through one of the units via the kitchen or bathroom window for extinguishment.

Take charge of your stairwells! Instruct other companies to stage below the fire floor in one of the hallways. It isn't going to do anyone any good if there are people piled-up in the stairwells or on the fire floor. If you are the company staged below the fire, take the time to check the layout of the building. As in high rise fires, the buildings layout is often identical on adjacent floors.

Utilize the stairwell/hallway doors to assist you in confining the smoke and fire and aid in extinguishment. Remember, doors in center hallways are our friends. Don't make them an enemy by using poor judgment.

When operating in a hallway with little to no visibility, try and keep your bearings straight. Your location in the hallway can be determined by counting the number of door indents from the stairwell to the fire apartment/unit. If conditions deteriorate, it's your area of refuge on the retreat (the closest unit to the fire may be your retreat.)

The area between the hanging (suspended) ceiling and the ceiling is called the plenum. The center-core building uses the plenum as an air return system. Air enters the ceiling space through the ceiling vents or specially designed light fixtures. Then, it is returned to the air handling system, it is important that no combustible materials are present in the plenum. Check for extension!

Don't forget an inside/attic ladder! Take advantage of the residents of the building. They may be able to point you in the direction of the fire and provide an indication of the best point of access. Once this has been decided upon, run up to the fire floor/floor below the fire, and throw down a drop bag for the engine company. This may be very beneficial to the engine company.

It is very common to find security doors in the hallways of center hallway occupancies. Take this into consideration once initial access has been made into the building. Consider your tool options and the buildings/doors construction features.

One of the more arduous tasks, and one of the most important! Fire in concealed spaces is what pulling ceiling is all about. It is a real and immediate problem at many structure fires. Hesitation on part of firefighters is one of the reasons for a fires progression beyond where it should be allowed to go. If the structure is burning, aggressively pull ceilings! Don't wait for salvage covers.

At the slightest indication of fire in the ceiling, start opening it up. Keep dumping the ceiling until you uncover the entire area containing traces of fire. Open big.

When you are advancing down a hallway give a lot of thought to pulling ceiling in the hallways. Typically, these areas are very difficult to work in due to their size. You will be in the way of the engine company and other members, they understand. In addition, hallway ceilings typically conceal the pipe chases for the building making it extremely difficult to open a good sized opening. Often times it may be better to enter a room off of a hallway to check for extension of fire. Remember this is a common attic, don't go deep under a attic fire.

Although a hose line should be in place and loaded/charged prior to pulling ceilings, the hose stream should not be used until the entire ceiling (a large hole) that has to be pulled, has been pulled. Fire does not generally travel fast enough during the opening up process to make it a problem. This maintains maximum visibility in the room while the ceiling is being opened up. It also maintains the thermal balance in the room so that the highest heat remains with the smoke at the highest area in the room. Remember, the better the working conditions, the better the job will be done, both in opening the ceiling and extinguishing the fire.

Protect yourself. For safety, pull ceiling just past the entrance or in the area farthest from the door to the room. If the fire should flash downward, you will have intact ceiling overhead as you retreat to the doorway.

Whenever possible, depending on the size of the room and manpower, at least two firefighters should be assigned to pulling ceiling. However, they should be able to work far enough apart so that they don't get into each others way, in the same area.

You don't hear much about it, but there is always the possibility of a backdraft when opening up a ceiling. Especially if positive pressure ventilation is introduced. This is one reason why we do not positive pressure an isolated attic fire. This is another reason why it is ideal to have the roof vertically ventilated (opened-up) first when a ceiling immediately under a roof has to be pulled at a serious fire. Another reason is that when you pull a ceiling to inspect a space distant from the visible fire area, it is likely that fire will be pulled toward the opening. Attic fires need to be vertically ventilated, follow all your safety precautions on the roof.

In a lot of multi-story buildings, suspended ceilings provide serious potential for backdraft conditions. Also, fire in the suspended ceiling spaces can drop down through air return vents.

To determine conditions behind the ceiling, knock out a panel before you get too far into the hallway or room off the enclosed stairway. This opened panel will aid as an indicator to monitor smoke and fire conditions above you. Make sure you can make a safe retreat to the stairway if necessary.

Under fire conditions expect loose tile to fall when light hose streams are in play and expect all tile to break up under heavy streams. It is good to know this when working in heavy smoke conditions.

Remember that pike poles and a hose line(s) is required for extension operations!

When upper floors are involved with fire, check the bottom of elevator shafts and other vertical openings for live embers that may have dropped from above. It is very common when buildings utilize wood lath and plaster for fire/embers to drop down into these chases into floors below the fire or even down into the basement

Pipe chases for plumbing extend from the basement level through the roof, where the soil (vent) pipes from the bathrooms terminate in the outside air. Usually the bathrooms and kitchens are served via a common shaft. Check these!

Like some older buildings that have dumbwaiter (a small elevator for conveying food and dishes or small goods from one floor to another) shafts. Although most are sealed, a fire entering the shaft at basement level will rapidly spread upward to involve the cockloft and top floor. Most new construction may have laundry shafts or trash chutes, all these areas need to be investigated for fire spread.

Remember that warm weather produces a natural updraft of air current within these shafts or chutes. It will draw fire.

As older buildings age, they are renovated, which make firefighting more difficult. Originally these buildings had interior partitions constructed of plaster or wood lath. Fire breaking through the plaster would find dry, easily ignitable wooden lath and race up the exposed channel. Many renovations now taking place use metal studs with a covering of gypsum board. Heavy plaster ceilings also are being replaced or covered over. If only covered over, the drop ceilings give the fire an additional void to travel through undetected.

The ventilation team can help keep track of changing conditions in pipe chases by feeling the waste vent pipes that project above the roof. Check those that lines up with the fire apartment first, then nearby pipes. A hot vent pipe or "soil" pipe indicates fire is traveling up that pipe chase. Relay this information to the I.C. and immediately begin opening up around the pipe. This may delay lateral spread in the cockloft, long enough to allow interior teams to expose it from below and knock it down.

Check for extension thoroughly along the baseboards, in light wells, trash chutes, etc.

Consider bringing a Haligan or set of "irons" to the roof. It may be necessary to force open penthouse doors, etc. Remember to open these when you hit the roof. People have been found "stacked up" behind these doors. Ask yourself if the penthouse door should be left open or closed based on the conditions/location of the fire. When you open the door, don't stand in front of the penthouse. You can actually draw the fire to the door and burn yourself severely (chimney effect.)

When looking for your fire, remember to take a look over the edge of the parapet. This is often neglected and causes firefighters to open holes in a spot that may not be the most beneficial. You may want to open the fire room for positive pressure ventilation. Tie-off your ax with your drop line and lower your ax to the fire room window. Hold on to the rope with the proper distance, raise your ax back up and then throw your ax out over the window. When the rope hits the proper distance the ax will swing into the window and break the glass. This will make a quick exhaust for your blowers.

If you are operating on a gooseneck ladder, use extreme caution! Quickly check the condition of the ladder before you put weight on it. There have been cases in the past where people have greased the gooseneck in an attempt to keep people off the roof.

The layout of the building cannot always be determined from the street. One of the things the roof team can do is relay information to the I.C. and other companies. For example, information relating to the shape; location; access; water systems; fire escapes; etc.

Consider the corners, bearing walls, areas adjacent to parapet walls and the areas over the hallways to be the strongest/safest areas on these roofs. Consider ventilating over the fire unit first and extending your hole out over the hallway. The center-rafter technique works well for this. Don't forget to utilize your skylights, etc. if deemed appropriate.

The main objective of your primary search is to reach trapped, savable occupants before they succumb. The secondary search is a very thorough search of all areas of the structure for any occupants who may have been missed in the primary search. The secondary search is done normally after the fire is under control and visibility has improved enough to allow firefighters to be certain they have thoroughly viewed all areas. A secondary search should be mandatory. Even if no one is reported missing, transients, "sleep over guests," and others are occasionally forgotten in the confusion of a fire.

If statistics are correct, they indicate that most occupants die above a fire (as smoke and heat travel upward.) The fire in the MGM Grand Hotel in Las Vegas is a good example.

Fires on lower floors result in serious exposure to the upper floors, via pipe recesses, light shafts and stairways.

When sizing up the building from the exterior, try to take note of others, stairways, hallways, fire escapes and windows, especially windows to which fire department ladders have been thrown. Note any windows which have bars, burglar gates or which, due to size or location, would prevent you from using them. All casement/double-hung windows should be treated as barred windows.

Generally, if you are searching a room off a hallway, closing the door can isolate it. If this is the case, don't hesitate to open windows as you go. With the door closed you will not draw the fire and the room will ventilate, improving your visibility and providing fresh air to any potentially trapped victims.

The bathroom does account for a number of victims who have sought refuge in showers and tubs or who went there for water to battle the blaze. Firefighters should avoid relying on bathrooms as a place for refuge though, since they often have windows that are too small to escape through (limited means of egress.)

When searching floors above the fire, remember to start your search directly above the fire first. If it isn't already, this area may be the most untenable area in a matter of minutes, negating your search operation.

Fires have been set by criminals to cover up felonies, such as murder. Victims may be placed within voids in the structure, such as in the cockloft. The fire is set in the hopes that the victim will not be found until all evidence has been destroyed and the cause of death will be pinned on the fire.

Remember to locate and check elevator cars and their shafts for the presence of victims.

If a bureau drawer is found open, it should be checked. It is not uncommon for people to have make-shift cribs in dressers, etc.

Using a hand light or venting windows to relieve the smoke condition can minimize poor visibility. If the power has not been cut in the building consider turning on lights as you go.

Use caution in overturning or otherwise moving furniture around a room while searching. This can conceal a victim or obstruct the means of egress.

When moving through a bedroom if you find a very low mattress, consider the possibility of a bunk bed. Another important telltale sign while searching bedroom areas is the discovery of furniture with long, wheeled legs. This is usually the configuration of a baby's crib, which should be examined very carefully so as not to overlook the smallest infant.

If there is any chance of there having been jumpers prior to your arrival make sure you check obscured areas for victims. These include shrubbery, rooftops of exposures, etc. Over a dozen people needed to be removed from rooftops at the Ponet Square Hotel fire.

More members are injured from collapsing structures when outside the building than on the inside. Remember your collapse zones.

Incident Commander, General Staff, Divisions etc. are required to keep track of fire ground personnel. Someone should keep track of how many and the length of time, large caliber streams have been operating. The weight of water flowing onto rooftops will exceed its "limit" within minutes.

Keep in mind when operating in habitational occupancies of modern (lightweight) construction that floors may be constructed of truss assemblies, providing a potential for rapid and complete failure. Modern floor construction, as well as, conventional floor construction is not designed for supporting the additional weight of even a couple of inches of water. If water is not draining and the floor is "holding" water, be on the alert for beams pulling from bearing walls, floor joists cracking; sagging floors, etc. Report your findings and then investigate them. Then you need to re-evaluate your priorities. Relieve the condition, if possible, or leave the area.

Additional indication of collapse may be walls that are out of plumb; smoke and/or water issuing through bricks; beams pulling away from their supporting members; buckled steel beams; large cracks or large sections of plaster falling away from the structure; unequal expansion/explosions; little to no run-off; soggy floors; heavy fire involvement; overloading/age of structure; noise (creaking, moaning, groaning, snapping, crackling, or popping.)

Collapse can take the form of lean-to if supports on one side of the floor let go, "V" if the beams crack in the middle, and pancake if the whole floor lets go (remember, no floor below is ever designed to take the "hit" of the floor above it.)

If you are ever in doubt, open the base of the interior finish on the bearing walls and look at the position and condition of the beams and surfaces that support them.

Another indication of collapse is if you notice new flooring material near the base boards and its quarter round molding. Either the floor is moving away from the wall or the wall is leaving the floor. In any event, it is a major collapse indicator. Remember that an automatic sprinkler system left running will cause you problems. Once you have a line in place and are able to "take the fire" the system should (with I.C. approval) be isolated. Also remember, you control the fire! The system can always be reactivated if required

Finished interior wall movement, in older construction, plaster slides off the lath or falls from the ceiling. In new construction, plasterboard buckles as the studs holding it move. This may be accompanied by a noise louder than other collapse signs.

Remember, steel moves! Steel will elongate eight inches in a 100’ span. No doubt, if it bulges the wall, that is one sign. But what happens if the wall is too strong? The eight inches is developed in the twisting of the beam, and it begins to drop its load of beams and rafters. Steel exposed to fire itself is a collapse indicator. The following methods are employed to protect structural steel:

• Application of a sprayed-on monolithic coating, containing a cement mixture or sprayed fiber.

• Encasement in various materials including concrete, plaster, gypsum wallboard, brick, tile or a combination of them.

• Ceiling membrane proofing is accomplished by installing a fire rated ceiling beneath the steel to be protected.

All building materials have a different coefficient of expansion and contraction. This is a tricky mathematical phrase that means all materials move, when heated, at different rates.

More members are injured from collapsing structures outside buildings than inside.

Someone should keep track of how many and length of time that master stream appliances have been in operation. In addition, where is the water? If running out, and down the street, fine. If it is not, the building is dangerously overloading/overloaded. Consider opening holes in floors to allow for the drainage of water. In addition, toilets can be removed and utilized as a drain. If operating on the roof of a structure, ensure that the roof drains are not clogged.

Remember that the wall that is typically the weakest is the one with the most openings, the front of the building.

Some of the observable indications of possible failure of masonry walls include the presence of sand lime mortar. (Which was used exclusively until the 1880’s when Portland cement mortar was invented.) It was used for many years thereafter, alone or mixed with Portland cement mortar. Usually it will crumble when scratched with a tool. Be suspect of any building built in the past century or early this century (pre 1933.)

Sand lime mortar is water-soluble. Number of (non-fire) collapses have occurred when water leaks washed out sand lime mortar.

When brick is used in ordinary (conventional) construction today, masonry blocks usually back it. In essence, there is a withe of brick on the exterior and a withe of block on the interior.

Wooden beams carry an amazing amount of the masonry load. The destruction of the wood in a fire (suppressional demolition) causes the failure of the otherwise impressive masonry structure. Wood may also have been weakened from dry rot or termites.

Materials that absorb water (rags, wastepaper, fibrous materials, etc.) should be stored at least a foot away from the walls to allow for expansion. Expanding water soaked material can push the wall out.

Large signs hang on the front walls of buildings, advertising everything from hotels to soda pop. These signs add an eccentric load to the front wall and must be monitored during fire operations for continued stability.

The presence of billboards on the roof of building places a dead load on the structure that, in most cases, it wasn’t originally designed to carry. If sufficient heat is present, the fire can cause collapse of the sign much sooner than that of the structure.

A more recent kind of advertising being used by trucking and truck rental/dealerships is placing vehicles on the roof of a structure. Use caution!

Smoke or fire pushing out of cracks in walls indicates weakened areas in the wall. Ensure the stability of staircases and floors prior to over extending yourself. Cover holes in flooring with doors, etc. Consider the use of a ladder when operating in areas above burnt out stairs. Check the floor ahead of you by sliding your front foot forward in a methodical way while maintaining the weight of your body on your rear foot until stability is ascertained.

Most collapses are not spectacular; they occur on the interior of a structure and usually are not noticeable from the exterior.

A building collapse can affect a fire in many different ways. Collapse might result in near extinguishment of the fire caused by the smothering effect the resulting debris has on the burning area. The fire is snuffed out, or reduced to a manageable situation, instead of remaining an open, free burning fire. Another effect can be involvement of a much larger area and a spreading fire. This occurs because the fire is now getting enough air to sustain free burning.

The purpose of salvage work is to protect property from damage by water and other elements of fire. Upon arriving at the scene of a fire, the company in charge of salvage must first know the location of the fire. This knowledge will give a good indication of where most of the water will be found. When the fire is on an upper floor of a multi-storied building the salvage company should attempt to hold the water to the floor below the fire. This is accomplished by bagging the floors with salvage covers/visquene. It is important to cover all of the affected property of value on this floor and that drains and chutes be formed below ceilings where water is expected to travel so that it may be channeled out a window, down elevator shafts and other vertical passages. If water cannot be held to this floor, or drained from there, it will be necessary to protect all floors successively downward where water can be expected to fall.

Attack salvage, is active salvage operations on the fire floor. The salvage team/company utilizes canvas covers (no visquene) and begins salvage operations as close to the fire as safely possible. A secondary salvage team/company should begin salvage on the floor below the fire (visquene will cover a large area fast. Remember that visquene will melt and should only be used for water/flooding conditions.)

Floor drains, scuppers, removing the toilet are great options for large water removal.

With I.C. approval, have someone shut down (isolate the fire floor only) the sprinklers (if the fire is manageable) as soon as lines are in place. They contribute water damage to the building and hold smoke down, which make it difficult to find the fire.

By definition, the Websters dictionary lists a basement as the part of a building that is wholly or partly below grade-level. A cellar is listed as the room or group of rooms below the surface of the ground and usually under a building.

A crawl space is defined as a small space beneath the lower floor of a structure that allows access to wiring or plumbing. The crawl space area between the underside of the first floor and the un-excavated ground is not large enough for a person to stand upright.

A basement, on the other hand, is a full story below grade, which has one half its height or less above grade level. When calculating the height of a building, the basement is counted as the first floor.

A cellar is different. It is a below-grade area that has more than half its height below grade. A sub-cellar is an underground level below a cellar. It is possible for a structure to have all three below-grade levels.

A cellar that is totally below grade front, side and rear will have only one or two stairways and no windows.

Only a sub-cellar is more dangerous than a below-grade cellar. A sub-cellar will have only one interior entrance and no windows. A sub-cellar is usually found in old commercial and storage buildings and modern high rise buildings. A fire in a sub-cellar is the most difficult below-grade fire extinguishment problem encountered in the fire service.

From a firefighting point of view, a cellar fire is the most dangerous area inside of a building. More firefighters are killed and injured nation wide battling cellar fires than on any other floor. In the past four decades, 30 FDNY firefighters died in cellars, killed by fire, explosions, collapses, drowning and toxic gases.

Basement fires, generally speaking, are probably the most difficult to ventilate, as well as, to extinguish. There are several reasons for this. When below grade level, openings from the outside are usually minimal to prevent unauthorized access. The type and quality of storage in basements at times also offers serious firefighting problems. If the fire is of any significance vertical openings that terminate in the basement, or inadequate fire stopping, provide an avenue of rapid fire spread to upper floors. To further complicate the problem, the large quantities of smoke and heated gases that are generated in basements fires due to incomplete combustion must be ventilated quickly to minimize travel of these products to other portions of the building.

It is common that alarms are delayed in basements due to the fact that they may conceal smoke and fire for some time. Typically, they burn longer and attack the structural supports directly.

Considerations for ventilating basements will be based on the construction of the structure, as well as, the building location. For example, some buildings may still exist that utilize sidewalk elevator shafts and dead-lights. Keep in mind that although necessary, the breaking of dead-lights for ventilation is very time consuming and will require the use of a heavy battering tool. In extreme cases, consider the possibility of breaching the exterior walls to provide ventilation.

Positive pressure ventilation will assist with rapid controlled movement of smoke in a structure.

If the structure design allows it, consider opening a hole on the first floor over the fire near a window. In conjunction with breaking out the nearest exterior window (the larger the better) to clear the smoke from the first floor. Blowers should be used to assist with the controlled movement of smoke. A hose line should always be in place with active fire ventilation. A hose line must be in place at the top of the stairwell, as well as, a protection line adjacent to the "ventilation opening."

A blower can be placed at the opening of the basement (this will allow the smoke to be pressurized and push over the top of the blower.) A second blower needs to placed adjacent to the first blower facing towards the controlled opening (remember, with all positive pressure operations only one exhaust port should be utilized and controlled.) This operation as well as the above operation requires two hose lines to be in place.

Several firefighters have fallen into basements/cellars through left open, hinged, "trap-door" type doors.

During a cellar fire, a broken gas pipe may release a flammable gas. If mixed with air and ignited by the fire, a violent explosion will occur. Firefighters may extinguish the fire and then be killed by the explosion. Always shut off the utilities while working in a confined space!

Many firefighters have drowned in water filled cellars. Firefighters have struck their heads on low hanging pipes, have been overcome by carbon monoxide, they have fallen into water covered sumps etc. Additionally, if the water level has reached the electrical supply service to the building the firefighter will be slowly electrocuted as he enters the cellar. Electric, gas supply and water (utilities) should be shut-off prior to members entering a (confined space) cellar or basement fire!

There have been several fires where firefighters have died or been overcome in cellars where there were light smoke conditions and a sprinkler discharge controlling the fire. Don’t let the presence of an operating sprinkler give you a false sense of security.

Consideration should be given to having a ladder (sitting off to one side) in close proximity to the stairwell. Their have been multiple fires where firefighters have attempted to advance down the stairwell only to have the stairs collapse, sending them into the fire with no means of egress. If a ladder is in close proximity it can be used for the quick removal of trapped victims or simply as a safe "set of stairs" to work from.

Positive pressure ventilation uses mechanical (gas powered blowers) advantage by increasing (overcoming the pressure created by combustion) the interior pressures to move heat and smoke in sequential order. The exhaust location and size are extremely important. Do not open the structure beyond your blower(s) capacity to move smoke and heat.

P.P.V. will improve the interior firefighting conditions, only if the exhaust is controlled, the ventilation group should manage this operation. All other members should not open doors or windows for overall structure ventilation.

P.P.V. is advocated for interior attack and search operations. Removing smoke and heat to save lives and gain firefighter access are the reasons to ventilate!

P.P.V. has its application, it is not a total replacement for vertical ventilation!

Positive pressure ventilation is not indicated for:

• Backdraft conditions.

• Isolated attic fires (vertical ventilation is the proper ventilation operation.)

• Imminent rescues with people at windows (the window will become your exhaust port and will compromise your victims’ chance for survival.)

• Do not apply P.P.V. without a hose line ready to deploy.

Remember that the structure needs to be charged with smoke. The reason to P.P.V. is to gain firefighter access into the structure with controlled ventilation. Both vertical and P.P.V. can be used simultaneously. If hose lines are ready to deploy and firefighters are actively moving towards the fire. Tactically, a hose line should be deployed to check for extension and a hose line deployed for attacking the fire.

Consider placing an exterior exposure line in place for exhaust control with a pending exposure on the exhaust side exposure.

Cross ventilation is the process of ventilating areas by means of windows, doors and other horizontal openings. Sometimes these openings are numerous and of sufficient size to adequately vent the area without recourse to other channels. If such is the case, cross ventilation provides the simple solution and it becomes unnecessary to direct the heated gases through other portions of the building. This fact may be of particular significance where life hazard is involved.

When contemplating cross ventilation, particular attention must be given to prevailing air currents and, whenever possible, the smoke and heated gases should be channeled out the leeward side of the structure. An adverse breeze, however slight, will obstruct cross ventilation to a marked degree.

When cross ventilating, it is important to guard against the spread of fire to floors above or adjoining buildings, by means of convection currents, i.e. fire, heat and smoke leaving the building (or an adjoining building) through another opening at an upper level. Where such a possibility exists, The openings at upper levels should be closed or if that is not possible, protected with spray streams.

When utilizing windows, in cross ventilating a large area, the windows on the leeward side should be opened first and from the top, and those on the windward side opened both top and bottom. When venting a single room, small area, or any other area where no horizontal air current can be established, open windows about two-thirds from the top and one-third from the bottom. When it is desirable to break windows on the fire floor to establish cross ventilation, and approach to them is difficult, this may be accomplished from the interior by

the use of hose streams. If necessary, from the outside by means of hose streams, pike pole or from an ax from the floor above (utilizing a drop bag line, tied to the ax.) Ladders may also be used both in gaining access to windows and in breaking them.